Hydrogen

Hydrogen

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Chemistry of Variable Charge Soils

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1. Introduction 2. Surface Charge 3. Electrostatic Adsorption of Cations 4. Electrostatic Adsorption of Anions 5. Specific Adsorption of Cations 6. Coordination Adsorption of Anions 7. Electrokinetic Properties 8. Electric Conductance 9. Ion Diffusion 10.

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Applications

Large quantities of H₂ are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. By far the largest application of H₂ is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels. The key consumers of H₂ in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H₂ has several other important uses.

• used in the hydrogenation of fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol.
• H₂ is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid
• H₂ is used in certain welding methods
• H₂ is used in the reduction of metallic ores.
• H₂ is an ingredient in some rocket fuels.
• H₂ is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas.
• Liquid H₂ is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies.
• The triple point temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the ITS-90 temperature scale.
• Since H₂ is 14.5 times lighter than air, it was once widely used as a lifting agent in balloons and airships. However, this use was curtailed after the Hindenburg disaster convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous for this purpose.
• Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen (hydrogen-2), is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects.
• Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints.

There are no "hydrogen wells" or "hydrogen mines" on Earth, so H₂ cannot be considered a primary energy source such as fossil fuels or uranium. Since H₂ is so light, any amount present on earth will float up into the atmosphere and out into space. H₂ can however be burned in internal combustion engines, an approach advocated by BMW's experimental hydrogen car. However, it is currently difficult and dangerous to store and handle in sufficient quantity for motor fuel use. Hydrogen fuel cells are being investigated as mobile power sources with lower emissions than hydrogen-burning internal combustion engines. The low emissions of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and fuel cells are currently offset by the pollution created by hydrogen production. This may change if the substantial amounts of electricity required for water electrolysis can be generated primarily from low pollution sources such as solar energy or wind. Research is being conducted on H₂ as a replacement for fossil fuels. It could become the link between a range of energy sources, carriers and storage. H₂ can be converted to and from electricity (solving the electricity storage and transport issues), from biofuels, and from and into natural gas and diesel fuel. All of this can theoretically be achieved with zero emissions of CO₂ and toxic pollutants. (See also Hydrogen economy.)

In the Haber process for the production of ammonia and the world's fifth most produced industrial compound, hydrogen is generated in situ from natural gas.